The nuclear-ravaged nation has partnered with Israeli company Neema to issue 24 million units of the Sovereign SOV digital currency. It will cap the number to prevent inflation. The national carrier claimed it had created a world record last year by operating the longest-ever all-women crew flight around the world on the Delhi-San Francisco-Delhi route. Through this fund, the special focus will be given on women safety in public spaces and quick response systems to create deterrence against crime in these safe cities. Measures to create safe cities: All the plans for safe cities have been prepared in coordination with municipal corporations and police commissioners of these cities.
To enhance the safety of public places like roads, schools and metro etc. The underlying determinants of NCDs and of climate change overlap substantially. Policy responses that aim to address common determinants may reduce NCD levels, could help avoid further climate change, and may assist in the management of existing climate change.
GHG emissions have grown largely as a result of industrialized societies' demand for ever-increasing volumes of production and consumption, along with increasing numbers of consumers globally as a result of population growth. The associated GHG emissions arise largely from the energy, transportation, land use and forestry, agriculture, and building sectors Each of these sectors is intimately linked with public health.
For example, the makeup of the built environment and transport systems and the nature of global food systems shape the recognized behavioral risk factors associated with NCDs 29 , Climate change mitigation and adaptation policies therefore have the potential to impact on NCDs and are explored now in detail summary in Table 2. The burning of fossil fuels is the main contributor to global GHG emissions Human use of energy via electricity, transport, industrial production, and fuel is based predominantly on fossil-fuel production and use. Urgent changes in power generation and energy use in all sectors are necessary, especially in high-income countries where a halving of emissions is needed by Two key mitigation policy areas associated with the energy sector are also likely to provide benefits to NCDs: energy generation and domestic energy use.
Energy generation. One of the main pathways linking electricity generation to climate change and human health is through the fine-particle air pollution arising from the fuel cycles for fossil fuels. These emissions not only cause climate change but also increase the risks of CVD, lung cancer, and acute respiratory infections 56 , 69 , Public health benefits in terms of reductions in local air pollutants will be gained if fossil fuel—based sources for power generation coal, oil, and gas are reduced.
Domestic energy. Improvements in the type of fuel used and of energy efficiency in domestic homes and buildings are vital for equitable public health outcomes The burning of traditional solid fuels is a major contributor to climate change through deforestation as result of biomass fuel demand, which results in the loss of carbon sinks Cooking technologies such as some types of biomass stoves also make a significant contribution to regional climate change via air pollution, specifically black carbon, which acts as a local warming agent and contributes to glacial melting Biomass fuels are probably the greatest source of human pollution exposure 84 ; the poorest half of the world's households rely on such fuels Indoor smoke from inefficient burning of biomass fuels contributes not only to climate change but to lung cancer, lower respiratory infections and pulmonary disease, low birthweight, cataracts, and possibly asthma and heart disease, a total of some two million deaths per year 20 , 69 , Badly constructed buildings are difficult to heat and cool, thereby requiring the inefficient use of fossil fuels.
Substantial reductions in these emissions are achievable through energy efficiency improvements A community trial in New Zealand found that insulating low-income households resulted in improved self-reported wheezing, fewer days off school and work, and fewer visits to general practitioners, as well as a trend for fewer hospital admissions for respiratory conditions Retrofitting existing homes would likely improve heart and respiratory illness, lift poor people out of fuel poverty, and help reduce carbon emissions. It would also help households adapt to more intense and frequent temperature extremes.
However, the construction of energy-efficient buildings should not create tight buildings that do not allow sufficient circulation of fresh air, which can contribute to indoor air quality problems.
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The world is predominantly urban and becoming increasingly so. Most of the future urban growth will take place in cities in low- and middle-income countries A key challenge, and opportunity, is to ensure that current and future urban development is done in such a way that prevents NCDs, reduces poverty, and builds societies that live within environmental limits 7 , Potential climate change mitigation and adaption policy options and the NCD cobenefits are described below. Urban design and the built environment. Urban design that supports greater street connectivity and balanced land use mix with more residential than nonresidential density mitigates climate change through the incentives that people and organizations are given to pursue low carbon emission activities.
Such designs have implications for NCDs.
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Compact, walkable urban environments are a key mechanism to promote physical activity and reduce body mass indices, car travel, and air pollution The positioning of vital community resources such as schools, parks, and health centers near residential and commercial areas 89 is important for health and climate change mitigation. Workplace proximity is a major influence on the commuting decision to walk 9. In addition to compact community hubs, climate change mitigation and NCD prevention can be achieved through urban design that incorporates green spaces within communities, focused along transportation routes and floodplains Enhancing urban green spaces will help mitigate climate change through CO 2 biosequestration, and proximity to, and time spent in, the natural environment green space also has a strong positive impact on general health, stress, blood pressure, and mental health The presence of green space also has indirect benefits for NCDs by encouraging physical activity and social connectedness, improving air quality, and reducing urban heat island UHI effects Green space may also help reduce health inequities; English-based research found that those populations exposed to the greenest environments had the lowest levels of socioeconomic inequalities in health Urban environments amplify climate change—related health risks owing to the UHI effect.
The UHI effect results from higher average temperatures due to the lack of shade and vegetation, as well as to dark road and building surfaces in urban settings The actual built environment offices, residential, and others produces GHGs through fossil fuel—based energy consumption via heating and cooling and through other electrical equipment. The conglomeration of nonresidential buildings often results in a lack of green space as well as an accentuation of the UHI effect Health impacts of the UHI effect are socially graded: Lower socioeconomic and minority ethnic groups are more likely to live in warmer neighborhoods and lack the sufficient resources to cope appropriately Mitigation and adaptation strategies could include the introduction of a mandatory green rating system for all residential and nonresidential buildings as part of the building code.
Support could be given to create urban gardens and green roofs, thereby helping to biosequestrate CO 2 emissions and providing a space for sustainable social activities. Transport systems. Transport systems reliant predominantly on fossil fuel are a major contributor to climate change and a common determinant of the health effects arising from urban air pollution, traffic injury, and physical inactivity 19 , 44 , 63 , The greatest health burden from fossil fuel—based transport is in the mega-cities of developing countries Many of the health risks are also strongly linked to socioeconomic status.
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Road traffic injuries have one of the steepest socioeconomic gradients, and many of the environmental impacts tend to fall disproportionately on poorer populations Local neighborhoods that are easily accessed and navigated by active transport such as walking and cycling see previous section , combined with high-quality public transport for longer journeys powered by renewable energy , are vital for climate change mitigation and will lead to increased levels of physical exertion, thereby reducing obesity and CVD, traffic injuries, and levels of respiratory illness The greatest human health and climate change mitigation premium would, however, come from a shift to zero-emissions vehicles plus active travel: Woodcock and colleagues 81 estimated that reducing CO 2 emissions through an increase in urban active travel i.
Transport policy that has active transport as its central focus, plus the provision of hybrid or electric cars for fleet vehicles in all public sector institutions , would help achieve both climate change and NCD goals. Agricultural production, food trade, and food manufacturing and retail determine the types of food available for purchase and consumption and its nutritional quality, physical location, and price. Each of these factors contributes to food security, dietary intake, and diet-related NCDs Various climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies within the food and agriculture sector have implications for NCDs and are described below.
Climate change mitigation through changes in animal source food production and consumption. GHGs are produced at all stages in the food system. Production of foods from animal sources is the major contributor to emissions from the agricultural sector. An unhealthy transition from plant-based diets to diets of highly refined foods and of meat and dairy products is occurring in all but the poorest countries 61 , particularly among the urban middle classes Although animal source products are important sources of essential nutrients, they are also significant contributors to CVD and colorectal cancer 76 , 83 , The increasing demand for agriculturally intensive animal foods such as meat and dairy, especially in emerging economies, has serious ramifications for both climate change and human health Given that the bulk of emissions from the food and agriculture sector is due to livestock production, a key climate change mitigation strategy would sensibly focus on this area.
These dietary changes would prevent not only ischemic heart disease but also some cancers and possibly reduce obesity. Climate change adaptation: food system diversification. Climate change is affecting the food system, contributing to impaired quantity, quality, and affordability of food in many countries Countries in the tropics and subtropics, where both warming and reduced rainfall are likely to occur, are at greatest risk of climate-related impacts on food yields 68 , Climate change pressures on yield, water, and fuel costs are already resulting in increasing food prices, which may exacerbate the NCD burden and health inequities: Some people will be able to purchase a healthy diet; some will only be able to purchase the cheapest sources of calories—energy-dense highly processed products that increase the risk of obesity and diabetes, and many millions will be unable to afford even that Rural livelihoods are also vulnerable to climate change with subsequent impact on social and health conditions, thereby jeopardizing achievement of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals Adaptive responses to climate change by domestic food systems are therefore important components of climate change policy responses and development, helping to ensure that nutritious food is available regularly and at affordable prices, thereby reducing undernutrition and increasing resilience to NCDs.
New food production techniques and improved food storage facilities are needed to enhance adaptive capacity, especially in regions where food yields will be most affected. Costly initiatives such as the development of new crop varieties may provide major benefits for food production; however, developing countries need support to finance such adaptation measures 65 , Urban agricultural policies may help ensure the local provision of nutritious foods in climate-stressed conditions while also creating a local food supply that is environmentally sustainable Although urban agriculture is unlikely to provide food yields that can compete with industrialized food production systems, and local production of food may not necessarily be less carbon intensive than industrial practices, there are, however, lessons from developing countries with extensive experience in urban agriculture for food security purposes to provide examples of practical ways forward.
Climate preservation and the improvement of health for people everywhere are inextricably linked. Coherent and sensitively designed cross-sectoral policies and programs in agriculture, energy use, and urban planning may produce major potential cobenefits for people and planet. However, if done badly, climate change policy in these areas may increase the prevalence of NCDs globally and widen health inequities.
Addressing the environmental and social determinants of NCDs will improve global health, but advances will also be made in poverty eradication and social equity such that people, communities, and nations will be able to resist current climate change and avert further damage to the global environment and climate. Climate change will exacerbate levels of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, poor mental health, injuries, and malnutrition.
Climate change—related health impacts will increase pressure on health and social systems in low- and middle-income countries experiencing rapid growth in their burden of NCD. Well-designed climate change mitigation strategies could provide a win-win opportunity: They would lower GHG emissions and concurrently reduce NCD risk in local populations, thus helping countries improve health, support development, and achieve national emission targets. Reductions in urban air pollution and indoor air pollution have great potential cardiovascular and respiratory health benefits in low-income countries.
A shift toward active transport would result in widespread cardiovascular health gains and reduced risk of cancer, poor mental health, and other chronic conditions in all countries. Reductions in both CVD and some cancers would arise from a reduction in the production and consumption of animal-source products among high-consuming populations. Climate change adaptation strategies, if done well, can help manage existing climate change by creating living conditions that reduce the risk of NCDs and support development.
What is the relative contribution of climate change to global NCD rates? How does climate change interact with existing NCD risks, and what will be the impact on development and global health? How much of the global, regional, and national NCD incidence levels could be prevented through climate change mitigation action? The findings and conclusions in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the World Health Organization.
Financial support for research assistance by K. Phelan 1 and Bruce G. Capper 1 and Dale E. Global GHG emissions from all agriculture were estimated by Bellarby et al. Vermeulen, 1,2 Bruce M. Campbell, 2,3 and John S. Production of fertilizers emitted — MtCO 2 e in Berry et al.
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Epidemiological studies show that a sudden surge in the level of particulate matter PM can be linked to increased cardiorespiratory morbidity and mortality including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD , and atherosclerosis 4, 12, An effective response to climate change could be the greatest global health opportunity of the 21st century In contrast to mitigation, the benefits of climate adaptation tend to be local 9, These outcomes have been overlooked in several international reviews of climate change effects e.
And increasing evidence indicates that climate change is playing a role in the spread of infectious diseases: Rising temperatures will increase transmission rates of vector- and rodent-borne diseases, including malaria, dengue fever, and schistosomiasis 22, 29, 31, McMichael and C. Aspergillus flavus Saori Amaike 1 and Nancy P. Preharvest control of A. It is well known that greater density of use leads to less travel 81, High blood pressure BP is the most prevalent modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease CVD , affecting more than one billion people worldwide Bioenergy and Sustainable Development?
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Ambuj D. There is strong evidence of correlations between such indoor air pollution and acute lower respiratory infections and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; there is also some evidence for a host of other health outcomes, including lung cancer, tuberculosis, asthma, and cataracts 4, Table 1 shows the estimated mortality and disease burden for each risk factor considered individually, Table 1.
Mortality and burden of disease as a result of exposure to ambient air pollution in 10, Table 2. Mortality and burden of disease as a result of exposure to indoor air pollution from solid fuels in for acute respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer 10, Bell, 1 Jonathan M. Recently the World Health Organization's Global Burden of Disease Initiative estimated that ambient air pollution causes almost , premature deaths annually Both Fischer et al. Field, 1 David B. Lobell, 2 Halton A. Peters, 1 and Nona R. Fischer et al. Adams , 4 Takemi Sugiyama , 2,5 Lars B.
Louis, St. Energy and Human Health Kirk R. Mauzerall, 9 Thomas E. McKone, 1,10 Anthony J. A majority of studies either conduct overviews of the general effects of climate change 69, , , or use particular locations as case studies, Physical activity has been recognized as an environmental health issue only recently 4, Ebi , 1 Jennifer Vanos , 2 Jane W.
Baldwin , 3 Jesse E. Bell , 4 David M. Hondula , 5 Nicole A. Errett , 6 Katie Hayes , 7 Colleen E. The measures required to limit GECs and to promote sustainable development also affect NCD risk, often in beneficial ways 61, Well-designed policies to reduce environmental change may yield ancillary health benefits cobenefits and avoid unanticipated health risks coharms 61, Minx, 1,2,6 Elmar Kriegler, 1 Detlef P.
Harlan et al. Morss, 1 Olga V. Wilhelmi, 2 Gerald A. Heat exposure also varies significantly within cities because of variations in land surface characteristics 33, 93, Such studies typically involve stakeholders and apply a flexible research framework, often integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches and data e. As Huq et al. Desjardins and Peter D. Between and , the world's surface temperatures rose approximately 0. Flower and Miquel A. Mean annual global temperatures are expected to increase by 1.
They are often cited in the context of climate-related decision making as factors that can significantly change the outcomes of direct cost-benefit evaluations Spillover effects are defined 1 as the consequences of domestic- or sector-specific mitigation actions on other i. Co-benefits are shown as occupying the upper right quadrant, using its definition in the IPCC's third assessment report 1, Other related terms, such as nonclimate benefits and nonenergy benefits 1, 32, 33 , Unintentional negative effects are ancillary costs 8 , ancillary impacts 1 , co-costs 34 , adverse side effects The IPCC 1 also has been using the terms co-impact and ancillary impacts as a way to refer to both the positive and negative side effects of mitigation policies.
The categories in the taxonomy Table 1 presented are our own but are based on previous reviews e.
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Methane has generally been assumed to have a GWP of 25 24 , Place 1 and Frank M. Panel Climate Change Health of Indigenous Circumpolar Populations J. Climatic change in the Arctic is more rapid than in other regions and has already led to glacial and sea ice melting and decreased permafrost Anisimov et al. Energy systems currently contribute to the bulk of emissions and may continue to do so in the future 4.
Many studies of climate change impacts on African agriculture were collectively analyzed in the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC assessment report 17, The health impacts of climate change itself have been extensively reviewed , , and are beyond the scope of this article. Zavala, 1, Paul D. Nabity, 2 and Evan H.
Daw, 1,12 Louisa S. Evans, 4 Karen Kotschy, 13 Anne M. Robards, 18 Michael L. Schoon, 9 Lisen Schultz, 1 and Paul C. Ensuring an adequate and reliable flow of essential ES to meet the needs of the twenty-first century is an enormous challenge 1, 4. The Politics of the Anthropogenic Nathan F. Ainsworth, 1,2 Craig R. Yendrek, 1 Stephen Sitch, 3 William J. Collins, 4 and Lisa D. Previous reports e. Canuel , Sarah S.
Cammer , Hadley A. McIntosh , and Christina R. Horwath, 6 Ermias Kebreab, 7 Johan H. In turn, large-scale environmental challenges, including potentially disruptive climate change Political Economy of the Environment Thomas K. Rudel, 1 J. Natural scientists and some economists have continued to use impact approaches, most conspicuously in climate modeling Intergov.
Panel Clim. Change , Change McInerney 1 , and Scott L. Estimates range from 1.
A release of thousands of petagrams of carbon an amount comparable to that likely to be released by human activities did, as expected, cause global warming and deep-ocean acidification IPCC These processes have implications for understanding the potential climate impacts of permafrost thawing and biospheric carbon sequestration in modern climate change IPCC Hill, Hannah M. Griffiths, and Chris D. Even the most optimistic scenarios mean that there is the inevitability of future warming for most if not all of this century 72, 73, 81, Whereas the ecological shifts generated by climate change are increasingly well documented 73, 89, 95 , Climate Risk Nathan E.
Hultman, 1 David M. Climate change and global warming are generating rapid changes in temperature that are not matched by any global temperature increase of the past 50 million years 55, The increase in atmospheric CO 2 concentrations will stimulate photosynthesis and possibly lead to increased plant productivity and yields 55, 97, Marine Ecomechanics Mark W. Current climate models predict that typhoons in the Great Barrier Reef area will become more numerous and more intense as the planet warms IPCC , If wave heights increase as a result of climate change IPCC , Several studies have documented this inequality at the international level 83, Economic Globalization and the Environment Kevin P.
Myers 1 and Jonathan A. Anthropology and Global Health Craig R. Janes and Kitty K. Many of the models of human impacts of climate change point to the need for more research to identify factors that affect the vulnerabilities of local populations in the context of political economy Intergov.